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Lower lobes:
- Viral infection: In children
- Primary ciliary dyskinesia: 50% associated with situs inversus (Kartagener syndrome)
- Immunodeficiency: For example, agammaglobulinemia
- Williams-Campbell syndrome: Deficiency in cartilage of the third- to sixth-order bronchi. Usually presents in childhood with coughing and wheezing and recurrent pneumonias. Expiratory CT may reveal collapse of bronchi with distal air trapping and normal-caliber trachea and central bronchi.
- Tracheobronchomegaly: Also known as Mounier-Kuhn syndrome. Rare congenital abnormality of the trachea and main bronchi.
Upper lobes, symmetric:
Upper lobes, asymmetric:
- Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis:
- Tuberculosis:
- Endobronchial tumor:
- Bronchial atresia:
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